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1968 Possible Use of Computers and Data Processing Equipment by International Non-governmental Organizations   - / - Revised version of a note presented to a meeting (Brussels, 1968) of the Federation of International Associations Established in Belgium (Brussels, 1968); the present English version is extracted from a detailed report in 1968 on the data processing problems of the Union of International Associations at that time (Version française) The report is divided into five sections: a) precedents in the use of computer techniques by non-profit organizations b) note on typesetting by computer c) note on research and storage of information by NGOs d) note on use of a service bureau e) use of computers by NGOs Precedents in the use of computer techniques by non-profit organizations No references could befound to the use of computers by international non—profit non—governmental organizations.A computer has been installed byat least two intergovernmental organizations, mainly to keep track ofdocument production in their fields. The two organizations are the Pood and Agriculture Organization 'of the United Nations in Rome (see FAO and Euratom in Mons, Belgium. These organizations operate on a scalewhich makes comparison relatively useless in examining the problems of theUIA. Three recent references were found to the use of computers by national non-profit organizations. The U.S.A. AFL-CIO Industrial Union Department Data Center offers computer services to member unions. The computer has been used for gathering and sorting information on labour contracts,analysing companies-and mergers to provide datafor negotiations, as well as processing of membership and subscription lists. Individual unions in the U.S.A. are also reported to be making independent use of computers, including the communications workers, the United Auto Workers, the letter carriers, railroad trainmen, carpenters, typographical workers. For example, the U.S.A. national trade union called the International Association of Machinists is reported to have installed a $ 1.5 millioncomputer in 1952 and has increasingly been able to upgrade the effectiveness of its union operations by adapting the computer to more difficult tasks. Prior to installation of the computer, union membership lists were 18 months in arrears. With a total of 950,000 members and what amounted to 100 percent annual turnover, it was then impossible to maintain effective contact through the headquarters office. Currently, 80,000 monthly changes in membership are processed within two days of receipt of the information, which enables the union to maintain contact 'by issuing a weekly newsletter. (see Adams, Alan, Ml) The article, although it demonstratesthat computers have been,used, effect- ively for membership societies does not illustrate whether computer ser- vices could be adapted to the UIA scale of operations. The second reference was to a U.S.A trade association called the Refrigertion Service Engineers Society. This organization with a membership of 23,000,monthly journal mailing, subscriptionlist maintenance, statistics (training courseattendance, insurance, etc.), reports that it decided to lease classical data processing equipment (tabulator, cardpunch, sorter, collator). The decision was made to lease the equipment rather than use a service bureau because although the actual coat of service bureau operations was somewhat less than leasing, it was considered that for long. range requirements, the cost of increased use of. the service bureau would, then far outweigh the possibleinitial savings. A study of personnel in- volved with the new system revealedthat there would not be as much reduction using the service bureau as there would in using leased equipment. After one year of operation the conclusion is that the equipment does not necessarily reduce costs. The labour costs plus the lease and operating costs are approximately equal to the former total labour costs. (see Stafford,Willis, M15) Note on typesetting by computer The bulk of commercial printing work depends on typesetting, that is the arrangement of type characters from which the final printed version is produced directly by impression (letterpress), or indirectly by photo-lithography. The bulk of typesetting is done mechanically by an operator at a keyboard similar to that of a typewriter. The depression of a key initiates a process which results in the production of a piece of metal type. Although machines which produce the type directly on the operationof the keyboard are used (especially by news- papers), it is more usual to separate, the keyboard from the type casting machine -- the means of communication being punched paper tape. More recently photocomposing machines have been introduced which assemble the characters on film for reproduction by photography. Although these offer the promise of increased speed of composition, the keyboard ope- ationis broadly similar to that for hot metal composition. 'A printed page is expected to consist of justified lines, that is lines of equal length to give a straight margin at the right and the left. In normal typesetting the decisionwhere to break the line, and if hyphenation is unavoidable, the word, is made by the keyboard oper- ator. This is a skilled, time-consuming job, and requires a thorough understanding of typography and house style. An operator's time is therefore a significant factor in publication costs. One of the things the computer can do is to relieve the keyboard operator of the need to make these decisions, and hence speed up his work and increase productivity. All the hyphenating and justifying is done for him. Two other main advantages stem from computer composition. Where the printed matteris to be in the form of tabulated information, such as bibliographies, directories or dalendars,which may have to be brought up to data at frequent intervals, the preparation of the copy can be closely linked with the computer. Insertions and additions can be easily made for each successive edition of the publication. The remaining point is that computer composition makes possible thestorage of texts on magnetic tape. Complete publications can be stored in compact form, without the inconvenience, wear, and cost of keeping type standing from edition toedition. The texts can be run through. the computer at any time to produce the necessary instructions for the copy to be set in type of a different size, style, orformat, withoutthe texts having to be reset manually on the keyboard. An additional advantage in the production of indexes to bibliographics, directories or calendars, is that the storedtext can be sorted by computer and then printed ina different order. A two-part directory of representatives of organizations and of organizations with their re- presentatives, can be produced by preparing only the more complex half of the text manually. This is then sorted and edited to produce the other part (see Exhibit 20). In some cases it is possible for the com-puter to examine individual entries, such as bibliographical references, and pick out the words to be included in the index. Typical system and procedure Exhibit 21 is an outline flowchart illustrating a multi-pass system withcorrection but without page make-up facilities. The passes are: Keyboarding of manuscript (if a typed version was obtained at thesame time the resultwould be as in Exhibit 22), input to computer system via paper tape containing unjustified text and format control messages. (The head of the tape carries indications on the factors such as type style and spacing limits, that are not generally alteredduring the course of a job, see Exhibit 22. During the first run on the computer, tables describing the required type face, are loaded from a library tape. By reference to thesetables, text is composed into lines, justified and hyphoniated as - necessary, and written to magnetic tape. Simultaneously, a proof print is produced on the line printer (see Exhibit 23). After the proof has been read (Exhibit 23), corrections are punched into paper tape. Corrections may include not only alterations to the text tut also amendments to the jobspecification and format control messages. During the second run on the computer, these corrections are in- corporated into the text file produced ty the first run. At the same time, the revised text is again composed into lines and written to magnetic tape, and a second proof is taken. This correction run may be repeated as many times as are necessary to obtain an error- free output tape. The relationship between the contents of the original main tape, the corrections tape, and the corrected main tape is shown in Exhibit 19a. A further run (not shown in the Exhitit) is used to break up the text into pages and add page headings and numbers. Indexing could be performed at this stage. A page proof is provided. The final run translates the text from computer code into the par- ticular code used ty the film setting machine or the hot metal caster. The text is then punched out onto paper tape for input to either of these machines. The proof printout is all in capitals, with about ten basic symbols to show shifts and other typographical changes. Each line is identified with a number. These points are made clear in Exhibit 24. The punched corrections identify the line in which the correction is to be made and would look the same as in Exhibit 22, if typewritten simultaneously. Summary of advantages composition costs are reduced because text can be typed ty less skilled (therefore less expensive) personnel justification and hyphenation decisions are performed ty computer more rapidly composition can be optimized saving 5% space per page additions or modifications to text in the form ofbibliographies or reference works can be made easily reference works in two parts (e.g. list of persons within organ- izations; list of persons cross-referenced to organizations) can be prepared by composing one part only and then sorting the data automatically text can be stored in a compact form at low cost text is always ready for print and does not wear as with cast metal proof reading is reduced considerable flexibility in printing only selected portions of the • stored text for different publications ties in with invoicing, rappels, administrative operations text can be analysed to prepare indexes automatically. Summary of uses Principal applications currently feasible are the prearation of reference works published at regular intervals giving upated, information, e.g. directories, encyclopaedias, membership directries, abstracts and indexes, telephone directories, bibliographies. The stored text can be used for surveys with considerable advantage sincethey can be made rapidly and the data base can be easily kept up to date. A few figures paper tape original read by computer at 500 - 1000 characters/sec: processing at 4,000 characters/sec. computer produces proofs at 1,000 lines/min alphabetic index of 20,000 entries prepared in-hours rather than weeks. final page formation in hours rather than in weeks (approximately 30 sec per page). Costs It is difficult to give an indication of costs except for a definite problem. In the case of the UIA problem, offers from printers using the classical method and one using computer typesetting indicated that the latter was cheaper thantwo offers by printers using conventional methods. This did not take into account the advantages arising from the ability to produce specialized publications, surveys, etc. The future of computer typesetting The future in computer typesetting terms is full of conjecture. Machines producing images by means of cathode ray tubes are coming off the drawing board and on to the market, and appear to be capable of setting type of an acceptable qualityat much higher speed; electron beam microfilm printers producing at the rate of 90,000 characters a second are being discussed; the development of ultra high speed magnetic drum printers producing a printing image directly from the computer core and running at. speeds in excess of the newspaper rotary could indicate the elimination of typesetting as a separate process altogether. Note on research and storage of information by NGOs Computers and punched card equipment offer considerable flexibility in the storage of information for use in subsequent surveys. Advantages of using computers compact form in which information is stored codes on punched cards (350,000 characters in 40 x 20 x 9 cm) information on magnetic tape (1,000,000 - 20,000,000 characters on tape) information on magnetic disk (about 5,000,000 - 8,000,000 characters per disk) speed at which the stored informationscan be processed punched cards at 1,300 characters per second magnetic tape at up to 120,000 characters per second disks at about 260,000 characters per second complexity and flexibility of processing options which can be chosen speed at which information, possibly in a different order, on different tapes and/or disks can be combined What sort of research can usefully be done on computers? There are two principal types of research uses: information is collected and processed once for a single study information is collected and updated for studies at regular intervals or in answer to questions The most useful applications for computer processing are where: there is a very large volume of information to be checked through, e.g. 10,000 meetings with different characteristics to be evaluated the volume of information may be much smaller in some cases when the number of calculations to be performed is very great Summary of procedures for such computer-aided research decide very clearly inadvance what questions must be answered by the survey produce a schedule so that each possible question can be answered by specifying one unique code or combination of codes. The schedule should correspond to the physical imitations of an 80 column card. Into each column one of approximately 64 characters (0 — 9 and A — Z, etc.) can be punched, so that there is a maximum of 80 characters per punched card. Any combination of these characters can of course be chosen. examine each item on which the survey is being conducted and fill out one schedule for each according to the codes that have been allocated to describe each variation. The schedule is known as the punch instruction document send the collection of schedules to a service bureau where the codes will be punched into 80 column cards on the basis of the schedule design, so that there is one card punched per schedule filled out the cards can now be treated using classical equipment to sort then mechanically into significant groups counting the groups as thisis done. The sort would be done on the basis of one or more of the codes (holes) on the punched cards alternatively, for more complex surveys, calculations can be performed whilst the cards are being processed on a computer, e.g. the statictical significance of the data, can be determined, percentages, etc. The results will be supplied in printed form if a computer is used, the information on the cards car. be stored on magnetic tape for later use, in answer to questions relating to the codes already provided. Example of the use of computers for surveys Data available in typed form at the UAI on 2,500 international organizations and the international meetings held over the past 5 years .(approx. 2,000 meetings per year) was analysed using punched card equipment. One card was used to describe the organization. A form schedule was filled out for each organization and another for each, meeting, each was used to prepare a punched card. The study resulted in the preparation of approximately 6,000 punched cards. The cards contained such details as : date of foundation, number of memers, budget range, geographical location, meeting periodicity, etc. Using these details and combining them in significant ways an extensive study of the development of international congresses as they affected the planned construction of a congress centre in Paris was effected. Using similar techniques a national NGO in the U.K. recently questioned its members to discover what preferences they had for the subjects to be discussed at their forthcoming congress. The questionnaire was used as a punch instruction document, cards were punched and analysed as above. The organization was thus ableto balance its congress program to satisfy the maximum number of members most of the time. The uses of these techniques to analyse a follow developments in the speciality of each NGO should now be reasonably clear, e.g. statistics on health figures in different countries, development and manipulation of education statistics, storing and retrieving bibliographical information, etc. Costs It is very difficult to produce a cost estimate without details of the work to be done. Each case has to be judged on its merits. The cost of treating information in this way. can be broken down into the following groups : design of schedule/punc instruction document, filling out the document for each item of the group to be analysed, punching the details onto punched cards, processing of the punched cards, analysis of results. The main costs are the manual work of filling out thedocument onthe basis of each item. An advantage is that using automatic techniques, no creative thinking needs to be done when the form is filled out - the work need not be done by an expert. The expert'stime is confined to designing the schedule and commenting on the results. The processing cost on classical equipment is very low (3CO FB/hour maximum). On computer equipment the processing would be completed very rapidly under normal circumstances and the important cost would be designing the computer program to produce the desired results. Note on the use of a service bureau A service bureau is a means of making expensive equipment available to those organizations requiring the sophistication of the equipment but who only need if for a few hours a day or month. There are a number of different types of service bureau. They may be classified firstly by the type of work they do and the equipment they possess: secretarial,administrative, accounting bureau punched card, classical equipment bureau computer service bureau The last two may further be classified according to the nature of the organization operating the bureau and the purpose for which it is operated: computer manufacturing companies general possess a service bureau at their national or regional head offices to assist clients to install their own computers, to test programs and act as a sales aid. some manufacturing companies possess acomputer which is speci- fically used for commercial service bureau work and is not intended primarily as an aid to sales. commercial service bureau organisations exist which hire a computer from a manufacturingcompany but are otherwise completely independent of the latter occasionally commercial or semi-commercial organizations group together and form a service bureau for their own internal use. It is possible to join such groups which are run on anon-profit basis. many commercial companies have computers which are not fullyused. It is occasionally possible to arrange with them to perform a certain amount of work on a contract basis. . This usually is cheaper than going through a commercial service bureau. occasionally universities and scientific research institutes have computers which are not fully used. It is possible to arrange with them to perform a certain amount of work on a contract basis. Advantages of using a service bureau no investment in expensive equipment which quickly becomes outdated no responsibility for machine maintenance no need to have computer experts on the staff at the NGO only use and pay for the time required to process the data data can be delivered to the service bureau on normal typed documents. Transfer of the information to punched cards, etc. is all done by the bureau. The final results are returned to the NGO. How would an NGO make use of a service bureau a) Initial analysis and file creation it is vital in data processing to be able to define clearly what it is hoped to achieve by using more sophisticated methods. To do this, it is useful to discuss the problem with an expert from one or more of the service bureaux, or from an independent company of consultants once the problem has been defined, a set of instructions can be written (a 'program' for the computer) and tested to deal with all the requirements and exceptions of a particular prob lem. If the problem is complex, several programs may be re quired. in order to deal with the data on a computer and at computer speeds, information currently in a typed form on cards or docuents must first be converted to punched cards from which the computer can convert it to tape. In other words, most card files must be converted to magnetic tape files. once thisstage is reached, processing can be done on a regular daily or monthly basis. b) Regular processing information coming to the NGO each day which needs processing, e.g. changes of address or invoices, etc. is dealt with, under the new system very quickly. All matters of routine have been transferred to the computer, only creative decisions need to be taken bythe personnel; with an invoice for example, it might perhaps only be necessary to indicate the members or client's number, code number of the publication he ordered and the discount to which he is entitled. This information would be punched onto a card at the service bureau (it could be punched onto the card in the NGO offices if there were sufficient to justify the hire of the equipment) together with all other similar changes during the month (say). the monthly processing would then be done during half an hours computer time each month and the printed invoices would then be returned to the NGO, together with monthly account details. work which is usually more essential to furthering the objectives of the NGO. Use of computers by NGOs Routine problems of NGOs Every NGO has to face thefollowing routine administrative problems on a regular basis: addressing letters, envelopes, mailings; etc. magazine subscribers publicity mailings appeal mailings questionnaire mailings membership fee reminders convications, etc. maintaining membership lists congress organization (due payments, invoicing, maintaining list of participants) production of labels for packages ordered invoices for publications ordered different discounts, currencies, number of copies, tax, layout, etc. receipts payment reminders monthly and annual accounts membership statistics, etc. For an international NGO this problem is made more difficult because of the need to work in several languages. What methods are possible for routine operations? manual system of addressing and preparing, invoices manual system of addressograph plates and manual preparation of invoices electrical system of addressograph plates and accounting machines punched card system for addressing and invoicing (mecanografie classique). punched cardinput to tape/disk computers for invoicing and addressing In each case, it is important to determine to what extent the equipment should be owned, hired or used via a service bureau. Reasons for considering new methods most NGOs are concerned with spending the funds-they have at their disposal as effectively as possible. It is regrettably necessary to devote a certain portion of these funds to general expenses required to maintain the organization in working order. If it is possible to reduce the funds expended in this way or alternatively make it possible for personelto spend less time on the routine operations and more on developing the activities of the organization, then the organizational effectiveness can be increased. it isimportant to consider new methods to discover whether existing routine activities can be done more efficiently and whetherfunds, personnel ana equipment can be reallocated in a manner which will inrease the amount of 'real' activity thus avoiding what might be termed hidden waste, it is most important to get away from the practice in some organiations where the Secretary-General himself has to check over the routine operations. He must be freed to advance the work of the organiation in general. Main problems of NGOs with respect to computers lack of knowledge as to how to go about determiningwhether their operations lend themselves to an economic computer solution. anxiety and doubt about the costs of computer processing confidence in and satisfaction with classicalsemi-manual methods sensitivity on the question of dealing with routine problems in a manner which smacks of commercial and profit-making attitudes, per- haps leading to a loss of the special NGO quality concern that control or understanding of the organization will pass into the hands of 'experts' who have not got the aims of the organi zation at heart concern that specialised and expensive staff will be necessary within the organization confusion caused by the peculiar jargon favoured by computer experts - ignorance of the fact that initial consultation with computer experts is a free service. Why have Computer Companies and Commercial Service Bureaux not attempted to contact NGOs? Many of the above problems also exist within commercial organizations and have been successfully dealt with by computer companies. The reason that NGOs have not been approached are: the lack of awareness of the existence of international organisations the general impression, shared by business and government, that non- profit organisations are not efficiency orientated and therefore not interested in techniques of increasing their efficiency and effectveness the general impression that non-profit organizations are not suffic- iently highly organized to have adata processing problem the fear that the. low budgets of NGOs imply that they cannot allocate extensive funds to the solution of their problems the low volume of 'semi-commercial' or routine information handled lack of approaches by NGOs which would make computer companies aware of the NGO market (in addition NGOs are perhaps not sufficiently clearly defined as a class or organizations) computer companies, but not service bureaux, are. usually more inter ested in hiring a whole machine rather than partial use of a machine. What steps can be taken by NGOs and whom should they contact? For those NGOs which are interested in exploring the possibility of elec- tronic data processing, any of the following organizations can be of assistance: the different types of service bureau mentioned earlier, which would each be interested in discussing individualproblems with a view to their solution on the equipment they have available independent programming service bureau which has no equipment but which will analyse the problem and prepare programs for use on the most suitable machine the UIA is planning to prepare a program specifically designed for the problems of NGOs and which could be used independently by such NGOs, or with the UIA in a 'pool' [This would lower the processing costs for the pool as a whole) independent computer/management consultant firms will investigate the problem for the benefit of individual NGOs An example: the solution envisaged for the routine problems of the UIA The UAI is faced with most of the problems listed above. They are presently dealt with using a manual addressograph machine and the preparation of invoices, reminders, etc by hand. In a commercial organization it is quite probable that these individual problems would be grouped together into several major operations (for each of which a 'program' would be prepared). Each operation would be dealt with separately, one after the other. This means preparing expensive indiidual programs and then setting the machine up for each different operation. This is a most expensive way of using a machine and is only justified when a large amount of time spent in processing relative to the amount of time spent in setting up the machine. In an effort to avoid the high initial cost of a preparing a number of programs, and the regular supplementary cost of setting up the machine for each job, it was decided to adopt a radical and somewhat unconventional solution. The solution is to do all addressing (publicity, magazine wrappers, etc.) and all invoicing (including reminders, monthly accounts, etc.) in one operation. These operations would be performed once a month on a service bureau computer possibly with the aid of equipment mecanografie classique. Functions performed by the semi-commercial processing solution Addressing magazine wrapper labels (monthly) bibliographical list wrappers (monthly) Yearbook supplement wrappers (quarterly) -advertising campaign mailings (irregular) subscription renewal reminders (annual) information request for calendar of meetings (annual) information request for Yearbook (every 2 years) change of address duplicates for internal use Invoicing. invoices with the following features (wherenecessary): different discounts different languages different currencies special comments (to save a separate letter) total of invoice in words (for a few official departments) any number of copies any number of items per invoice invoice payment reminders to members or customers totalling unpaid invoices indicating amounts paid indicating for which items 1st, 2nd, or 3rd reminders sent receipts membership fee reminders congress fee payment Labels for appropriate groups of items ordered on the invoice indicating to dispatch department the contents of package by code Accounts total invoice by number and amount (monthly). total payments by number and amount (monthly) total unpaid invoices by number and amount, indicating period - over which the amounts have been due (l, 2, 3months) total postal costs by group (publications, magazine, advertising) total sales of main groups of publications total discounts given for major groups of publications Statistics facility for count or analysis of address file according to any group of customer codes Membership list facility for producing an up to date membership list Example of use of correction paper tape (Exhibit 19a) Original tape Correction tape Corrected tape   Example of use of computer typesetting in the composition of a two-part directory (Exhibit 20) Part A Part B Typical flowsheet of the computer typesetting process (Exhibit 21)   Example of typed equivalent of paper tape during computer tyepsetting (Exhibit 22) The sequence of characters and shift indications shown in the block below is exactly as it would appear on the typewriter which was also being used to produce the paper tape The string of characters is shown after conversion into readable text in Exhibit 23. Job specification The specification for the job is as follows: Job number: ICT/1/67 Job title: Specimen job Fount: P001, 10 set, 10 point on 11 Measure: 22 ems Space limits: 8,18,24 Since these differ in every case from the standard job specification stored in the Run 1 master program a complete specification is punched at the head of the input tape: JVICT/1/67VSPECIMENVJOB FVP001V10V10V0NV11 MV22 SVSV13V24EJ (The symbol t represents the format shift code) Input Text The job specification is immediately followed by the text punched into paper tape andendingwith an. EJ code. The punching conventions depend on the type of keyboard in use, but after translation into Commer Code the complete input string is as follows: Certain punching errors have occurred, and are marked on the proof print produced on Run 1. One error however, does not appear on the proof. In line 4 the sequence 'PREDtsPRODUCTION' indicates that the operator made a conscious error and corrected it by using the word kill function. The unwanted characters are deleted from the text. Examples of second proofs as supplied from the UIA printer in the computer typesetting process (Exhibit 23)   Example of the selection of shift and format keys present on the printout supplied by the computer (Exhibit 24) The text in the proof below explains the symbols used. Possible layout of general invoice / statement of account document to be produced by computer (Exhibit 32) [omitted]

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