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Recognized Role of Humourin politics, leadership, religion and creativity- / -Varieties of humour Research on humour Marginalization of humour Recognized role of humour in conventional political processes Recognized need for humour in leadership and management Recognized need for humour in religion and spiritual development Recognized need for humour in religion and spiritual development (Christianity) Recognized role of humour-playfulness in the media Recognized role of humour-playfulness in creativity Recognized role of humour in philosophy and cultural studies Varieties of humourThere are many typologies of humour. Wikipedia has an extensive categorization of styles or techniques of humour [text]. Ken Willis provides a critical discussion of the problems of classification of humour (cf Ken Willis. Making Sense of Humour: Some Pragmatic And Political Aspects, 2002 ) with reference to the schema of Sigmund Freud (Jokes And Their Relation To The Unconscious, 1905) regarding the techniques of joking:.
Moniek Buijzen and Patti M. Valkenburg (Developing a Typology of Humor in Audiovisual Media. Media Psychology 2004) identified 41 humour techniques. Their analysis gave rise to 7 categories of humour: slapstick, clownish humor, surprise, misunderstanding, irony, satire, and parody. However, according to Joel Goodman (The Humor Project), there are (at least) 57 varieties of humour. 14 are distinguished in another study by Roy Paul Nelson (Fourteen Varieties of Humor Comedy, 1984). Five varieties of humour have been identified as valuable in stressful emergency situations : (1) tension-relieving nonsense, (2) play on words, (3) sense of the preposterous and incongruous, (4) gallows humor, and (5) foolish jest (cf K van Wormer K and M Boes (Humor in the emergency room: a social work perspective, Health Soc Work. 1997 May, 22(2):87-92). (see also Frank Henry Katz. Screaming Laughing: the functions and varieties of humor in American Holocaust Literature. Diss. Arizona State U, 2000). Research on humourAs noted in the newsletter Humor, there are a number of arenas through which the role of humour is studied:
In addition, gatherings like the International Cognitive Linguistics Conference (University of La Rioja, Spain, 2003) may devote special sections to cognitive linguistic approaches to humor. Marginalization of humourAs reviewed by Karl-Josef Kuschel (Laughter: a theological reflection. London: SCM Press, 1994):
However, Kuschel points out, in response to the argument of the novel of Umberto Eco (The Name of the Rose, 1983) around the lost second half of Aristotle's Poetics (which dealt with laughter), that, ...if the poetics of postmodernity is a poetics of play ...then this poetics corresponds to an aesthetic of laughter: laughter at the fact that one is free from all binding ties, values, and norms ... If nothing is binding any more and everything is fluid, if the 'as if' reigns, then in fact laughter can be a congenial expression of this poetics. The modern marginalization of humour might be understood as a reaction against views held in the medieval and renaissance periods. The persistence of carnivals might be understood as an exception. The nature of the marginalization of humour is well-made with respective to cognitive linguistics: In concentrating on conceptual and cross-cognitive aspects of language use, cognitive linguists have given centre stage to phenomena like metaphor, metonymy and conceptual integration, which more traditional paradigms of linguistic inquiry have relegated to the periphery of cognitive processing. It is the organizers' firm belief that another peripheralized area of conceptual inquiry, humour, will return similar dividends as the study of metaphor, inasmuch as it will shed light on crucial aspects of cognitive processing that extend beyond the purely 'humorous'. Jokes, to take the prototype of a humorous text, are extremely fragile linguistic and conceptual constructs, the meaning of which depends vitally on a nexus of quantitative criteria (such as the time of delivery, and the activation of key expectations) and qualitative criteria (such as social context, cultural taboos, shared world models, etc.). This fragility of humorous language makes it an ideal linguistic form in which to theorize about the relationship between the quantitative and qualitative aspects of language and cognition. [text] Recognized role of humour in conventional political processesHumour is a well-recognized part of the political process. It is exemplified by the work of political cartoonists (cf New Zealand's House of Representatives, Parliament in cartoons). In an article in the Australian Marxist Review (No. 27, 1991. pp 33-36) entitled Humour is Serious Business, appears the statement: "It is a generally admitted truth that humour is a serious business". Both within parliament and in reporting on parliamentary activities, satire is extensively used. Arguments may be won through humour -- or an opposing case can be reframed so that it does not carry the weight its proponents would wish. US President Jimmy Carter found that his encounter with an "attack rabbit" on 20 April 1979 became, through humorous media presentation of the story, a symbol of his floundering presidency -- photos of the incident were "accidentally" released by Ronald Reagan to the press. Tony Blair has subsequently been framed as America's "attack poodle" [more]. More generally, in whatever form, humour is vital to the the process of political campaigning and parliamentary debate -- and sustaining interest in debates which are of marginal interest to an audience (cf C B Crawford & C S Strohkirch. An analysis of humor frequency and types in the 1992 and 1996 presidential debates, 1999). For example:
Humour poses a notable challenge in multilingual parliaments, such as the European Parliament. For example, Elsa-Maria Michael (Interpreting Jokes, Swear Words and Brusque Remarks: Experience in the European Parliament, 2003), points out "To find oneself interpreting jokes, swear words or brusque remarks in the European Parliament is by no means a rare occurrence. To the contrary, it is the order of the day." Parliamentary written records typically include parenthetical indications of "[laughter]" -- or, on occasion, ["a titter ran through the crowd"]. This suggests an interesting piece of research to determine the criteria under which this is inserted, and the parliaments where this is not used. It should however be noted that in a multilingual context, what is recognized as humour within one language group may not be so recognized by another The widely cited commentary of Sheila Samples (Laughter of the Gods, DemocraticUnderground.com, 5 March 2004) looks at the "religions" of the Neocons in the USA, the "God People", and the "Chosen One" and finds them to be following some God different than the rest of the world. For them, in the words of Michael Ledeen: "Creative destruction is our middle name. We do it automatically...It is time once again to export the democratic revolution." Furthermore, "God understands that all men are evil, and the only way to achieve peace is through total war." Consequently"the sparing of civilian lives cannot be the total war's first priority... The purpose of total war is to permanently force your will onto another people." Given Samples title, this view would be consistent with Francis H Buckley (The Morality of Laughter, 2003) for whom laughter "announces and enforces a code of behavior through the jester's signal of superiority over a butt. There is no laughter without a butt, and no butt without a message about a risible inferiority." Laughter was used as a moral tool to justify intervention in Iraq and to mock those (notably the French) unwilling to engage with the Coalition of the Willing in that enterprise.
Recognized need for humour in leadership and managementHumour is widely recognized as an important attribute of leadership. As noted by President Dwight D. Eisenhower: "A sense of humor is part of the art of leadership, of getting along with people, of getting things done." For Carson Pue ("Fun"damentals of leadership. ChristianWeek, April 2005):
Corporate management: For Carolyn Barker (The 7 Heavenly Virtues of Leadership. Australian Institute of Management's Management Today, 31 July 2003):
Humour may be used as an educational device as with the the humorous, yet eminently practical parables, based on real problems by real managers (cf Russell L. Ackoff, Ackoff's Fables: Irreverent Reflections on Business and Bureaucracy, 1991) Working environment: In addition to the management perspective on the value of humour, its value in the working environment has also been recognized. For example, Kathy Jourdain (Humour at work Approaching Change, Volume 3, no. 7, March 2003) argues:
Military leadership: The value of humour is clearly recognized by the military. For example, Robert F. Priest and Jordan E. Swain (Humor and its implications for leadership effectiveness. Humor 15–2 (2002), 169–189) note:
International relations: Beyond commentary on political humour at the national level, there appears to be relatively little study of the role of humour in international relations. This was probably the reason for the creation of APHIA -- the Association for the Promotion of Humour in International Affairs, co-founded by John Fobes, former Deputy Director General of UNESCO. An interesting pointer to the possibility of such study is a little-known work by V S M De Guinzbourg (Wit and Wisdom of the United Nations: Proverbs and Apothegms of Diplomacy. United Nations, 1961). Aneurin Hughes, Head of the European Commission delegation in Australia (The Importance of Language Services in International Relations, 1997) recognizes the value of humour as "the affectionate communication of insight which makes the wheels turn round". Jacob Bercovitch and Patrick M. Regan (Managing Risks in International Relations: The Mediation of Enduring Rivalries) argue that:
Local authorities: In this case the argument has been well made by Joey Novick (Politics unusual: the dollars & sense of humor in government. County News Online, National Association of Counties, Vol. 37, No. 11, 6 June 2005): A good sense of humor is an important management tool that will carry you a long way in government and in political life. Good humor skills enhance creativity and problem solving, relieve the stress of leadership, provide good communication skills and enhance team building and cooperation. Particularly interesting are the local communities that recognize a need to challenge a level of boredom which may be held to be a characteristic of their town. For example the new mayor of the city of Salisbury in the UK decided to do something about the city's malaise in that respect. He brought back a long-lost tradition -- that of the court jester [more]. Court jester: The role of the court jester was well-recognized in the past in many cultures, as various historical studies attest (cf Beatrice K. Otto. Fools Are Everywhere: The Court Jester Around the World, 2001 [excerpt]). The First Congress of the New Age (Florence, 1978) benefitted significantly from such a role through Brother Blue (see A Congress that Dared the Unthinkable, 1978). As noted above, the model continues to be seen as having relevance in the present [more]. In the UK, English Heritage has advertised in a national newspaper in 2005 for the post, last held in the court of King Charles I in 1649 and abolished by Oliver Cromwell as part of the purges that followed the Civil War and was not reinstated after the Restoration. [more] Wim Bos, responsible in the Netherlands for artistic support at the Stichting Milieubewustzijn (1996-2000), had the idea to revitalize the role of the court jester in society. His innovation was that the court jester would not be employed by the Court of the King, but within organizations. He argues: The Court Jester offers new perspectives and helps people to look at their daily work and every day reality in new ways. Here the court jester is concerned with the quality of the organizations and the well-being of all employees, independent of their positions. [text] Although the role of an officially appointed "national poet" is recognized in a number of countries, the value of a court jester is seen to be more relevant by Gilbert K. Chesterton (Revive the Court Jester: Utopia of Userers, et al) Instead of reviving the Court Poet, why not revive the Court Fool? He is the only person who could do any good at this moment either to the Royal or the judicial Courts. The present political situation is utterly unsuitable for the purposes of a great poet. But it is particularly suitable for the purposes of a great buffoon. The old jester was under certain privileges: you could not resent the jokes of a fool, just as you cannot resent the sermons of a curate. Now, what the present Government of England wants is neither serious praise nor serious denunciation; what it wants is satire. Recognized need for humour in religion and spiritual developmentThere is widespread recognition of the value of laughter and humour to physical health and psychological well-being -- valuable preconditions for spiritual development (cf George S. Riggins III, The Worth of Mirth, 2001). Humour, through laughter, is recognized as valuable for: increasing muscular and respiratory activity; stimulating the cardiovascular system, and the muscular and skeletal systems; increasing antibodies; increasing pain tolerance; decreasing levels of stress hormones; and decreasing heart rate It is curious that sacred literature in general tends to be totally lacking in humour. There is little reference to the founders of spiritual movements laughing or telling jokes (cf Todd Leopold. Is 'religious humor' an oxymoron? CNN, 19 November 2002). The tendency is for humour to be considered incompatible with the serious business of religion and salvation, as explored by Vassilis Saroglou (Religion and sense of humor: an a priori incompatibility? Theoretical considerations from a psychological perspective, 2002):
M. Conrad Hyers (The Ancient Zen Master as Clown-Figure and Comic Midwife. Philosophy East & West, 1970, 10, pp. 3-18) generalizes this marginalization beyond her focus on Zen:
Hyers adds: It is apparent upon closer examination, nonetheless, that in Buddhism, and in Zen Buddhism in particular, as in any religious tradition, a place has been granted to the comic spirit and perspective -- a time to laugh and to dance, as well as a time to weep and to mourn (Ecclesiastes. 3:4). One very illuminating and seldom explored method, therefore, of approaching a religious tradition, and of disclosing even its innermost features, is to examine what the comic means, and in what ways it has been employed, or at least permitted, in that particular context. The experiences and expressions which we associate with the terms laughter, humor, and comedy often play a far greater and more significant role in relation to religious experience and expression than scholarly inquiry has been ready to admit or careful to recognize. Human existence, in fact, as it is religiously lived and understood, is only given adequate definition in terms of a dialectical interplay between seriousness and laughter, between "holiness" and humor; and apart from an appreciation for both sides of this dialectic, the sacred and the comic, no religion is fully comprehended or interpreted. It must be acknowledged at the outset that the inclination of a religious tradition, especially insofar as it moves toward an orthodoxy, is often to squelch the comic spirit and perspective, or at least to keep it at a relatively safe and innocuous distance. Islam: Concern at the role of humour has been expressed within Islam (Does Islam Go against Laughter? 2004), to which a prominent Muslim scholar Yusuf 'Abdullah Al-Qaradawi has responded:
The Al-Islam.org through its Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project (Allah: The Concept of God In Islam) points to issues relating to laughter:
The extent to which the founder of Islam laughed is a concern in Islam [more] -- as with founders of other religions. is said to have smiled rather than laughed. In a Hadith, The Prophet Muhammad (p) is quoted as saying: "O followers of Muhammad! By Allah, if you knew what I know, you would weep much and laugh little." [Sahih al-Bukhari, Vol. 8, #627] Amir Taheri (Spirit of Allah, 1985) cites Ayatollah Khomeini's comment on the matter when endeavouring to combat the presence of music in Iran: The aim of creation was for mankind to be put to the test through hardship and prayer. There are no jokes in Islam. There is no humor in Islam. There is no fun in Islam. There can be no fun and joy in whatever is serious. (page 259) A related concern has been explored by Khaled Nusseibeh (Is Laughter Banned in the Holy City? 2000) arguing that: "The Muslim faith encourages laughter to the extent that it is a religion that seeks to achieve human well being". There is however a specific concern with "excessive laughter" since it "deadens the heart" spiritually [more]. There is a marked intolerance of satire which may be considered and treated as blasphemy. Laughter is considered a characteristic of corporeal entities. The Al-Islam.org text (Allah: The Concept of God In Islam) clarifies the question of the "laughter of Allah": References to Allah laughing exist in lengthy "traditions" narrated by Ma'ath ibn Fulah who quotes Hisham quoting Qatadah quoting Anas ibn Malik and is recorded on pp. 119-120 of The Divine Traditions. It depicts one of the scenes on the Day of Judgment. A variation of it is narrated by Abd al-'Aziz ibn Abdullah who quotes Ibrahim ibn Sa'd quoting Ibn Shihab quoting 'Ata ibn Yazid al-Laythi quoting Abu Hurayra, and it is recorded by al-Bukhari and cited on pp. 121-122 of The Divine Traditions. We do not think it is worth quoting here. With regard to humour, the renowned exception within Islam is its use by Sufis (the mystical branch of Islam) against foolish rigidity and willful ignorance -- notably through the numerous teaching tales of Mullah Nasruddin (cf Idries Shah, Special Illumination: the Sufi use of humor, 1977). Buddhism: In the case of Buddhism according to Conrad Hyers (Humer in Zen: Comic midwifery, 1989):
On this topic see Michel Clasquin (Real Buddhas Don't Laugh, 2001). To resolve the contradiction, this "laughter" of Buddha was considered to have been limited to the first of six types of laughter, using a classical scale derived from drama by Bharata:
... what is especially striking about the Zen Buddhist tradition, in both its Chinese and Japanese forms, is that in its literature, art, and religious practice, what one often encounters is the opposite of sita, namely, the fifth and sixth and supposedly lowest levels of laughter, offered both as authentic expressions of Buddhist enlightenment and evidence of the authenticity of the enlightenment. In Zen, Bharata's aristocratic and spiritualistic schema seems abruptly to have been stood on its head. Zen anecdotal records contain frequent reference to "loud roaring laughter": of the master in response to a foolish statement by a monk, or of a monk in experiencing a breakthrough to enlightenment, or of the master in attempting to precipitate such an experience. [more] In his account of a Zen master, Ishwar C. Harris (The Laughing Buddha of Tofukuji: The Life of Zen Master Keido Fukushima, 2004) notes: Roshi Keido Fukushima is not against people seeing humor in Zen. However, they should understand it for what it is. He reiterates: 'A Zen person laughs when he laughs and weeps when he weeps. That's all!' During our discussion on humor I asked the Roshi about those Zen masters in China and Japan who told funny stories to their disciples or behaved like the legendary Sufi, the incomparable Mulla Nasrudin. The Roshi agreed and pointed out that such stories or acts can be used as an upaya (means) to illustrate a point. However, he pointed out that the purpose behind such activities is to engender Zen experience, not to teach about humor. Furthermore, within the narratives, the Zen person who is the object of the humor, does not think of himself as funny. Only the others do....On this issue I find a remarkable similarity between Sufi tradition and Zen. In China, Bodhisattva Maitreya (Chinese: Pu-tai, Ho-shang, Japanese: Hotei), known also as the" laughing Buddha", is usually represented as a rotund figure of happy disposition. The tradition of the Laughing Buddha derived its beginnings from a mix in Buddhist, Taoist, and Shinto religions and can be traced back to the time of the Liang Dynasty in China. Chinese Buddhists have integrated the Laughing Buddha into the Mahayana Buddhist pantheon. He is not to be confused with the historical Buddha Shakyamuni. Buddha Maitreya is the Buddha of the future, the one to follow the historical Buddha Shakyamuni. [more | more] With regard to the spiritual significance of humour, A Zen Study of Humour notes: It further notes:
The study recognizes the role of humour in enlightenment and liberation:
Judaism: Lionel Blue (To Heaven With Scribes and Pharisees, 1976) argues that "the most typical weapon of Jewish spirituality is humor." In commenting on this, A. Roy Eckardt (Divine Incongruity: comedy and tragedy in a post-Holocaust world, 1992) notes that: Insofar as Blue is on to something, I submit that he is pointing up one of the major dissonances, if not the major dissonance, between Jewishness and Christianity -- a conflict of telling sociological, psychological, and moral import. How can it be, for example (speaking of mysteries), that in the United States today (an unofficially Christian land) Jews, constituting 2.7 percent of the population, should comprise some eighty percent of the humorists? The extensive article in Wikipedia on Jewish humor indicates: Jewish humor is rooted in at least two traditions. The first is the intellectual and legal methods of the Talmud, which uses elaborate legal arguments and situations so absurd as to be humorous in order to tease out the meaning of religious law. The second is an egalitarian tradition among the Jewish communities of Eastern Europe in which the powerful were often mocked subtly, rather than attacked overtly... Jesters known as badchens used to poke fun at prominent members of the community during weddings, creating a good-natured tradition of humor as a levelling device... Jewish humor was also a device for self-criticism within the community.... The humorist, like the prophet, would basically take people to task for their failings. The humor of Eastern Europe especially was centered around defending the poor against the exploitation of the upper classes or other authority figures, so rabbis were made fun of, authority figures were made fun of and rich people were made fun of. It really served as a social catharsis Other sources include:
Hinduism: Humour is considered to be rampant in Hindu literature, both sacred and secular. The rishis of the Rig-Veda jested about the ordinary human state of mind. The point is made that: Where else is there laughter in Heaven, bantering among the Gods? In most faiths, there's rarely a smile in the sacred texts, and heaven and its denizens are seldom viewed as having a lighthearted side... The Mahabharata excels in its mastery of trickery and satire....Both Krishna and Siva sanctify humor, but in different ways.... Either way, their laughter links Heaven and Earth. This not-so-serious side of Hinduism is evident in saints and sages. Some consider wittiness a warrant of egolessness and spiritual attainment, for the greatest souls are often jovial, and many go for the jocular vein." (Hinduism Today, May 1997) As studied by Lee Siegel (Net of Magic Wonders and Deceptions in India</ |